Horticultural journal of Kenya-provides information on vegetable and fruit production, herbs and spices, plant and pest management, prunning, post harvest management of produce, food security and agricultural marketing
Supermarkets are becoming popular outlets of fresh fruits and vegetables because of their quality and safety measures and growing middle class that are ready to spend more.
A farmer who is targeting to sell his produce in a supermarket must understand its’ procurement procedures.
Huge chain supermarkets have contracted companies or have specialist procurement departments that source the produce on their behalf and are less likely to buy direct from farmers.
A farmer intending to sell to the big chains supermarkets may have challenges in assuring them consistency and quality.
Smaller supermarkets require small volumes of produce have less restrictions to direct purchase from farmers.
Procurement of fresh fruits and vegetables depends on size of supermarket, volume of demand, and its organizational structure.
Small supermarkets purchase their requirement from farmers (both contract and non contract or wholesale or retail markets.
OUTLETS OF FRESH FRUITS AND VEGETABLES
Fruits and vegetables are consumed in Kenya when fresh; processing is restricted to the extraction of fresh juice and the drying of fruits and vegetables.
This means that a small fraction of the total production of fresh fruits and vegetables in the country is sold to processing industries.
A huge fraction is sold in traditional outlets i.e. Kiosks and open air markets which account for 80% of sales.
Some of the fresh produce is sold in supermarkets like Uchumi, Nakumatt, Tuskeys, Naivas, Kamindi, Cleanshelf, among others.
Open air markets/wet wholesale and retail markets provide competition to supermarkets as a substantial consumer base patronizes them for their convenient price and variety available.
Open air markets/wet wholesale and retail markets offer competitive prices, but are characterized by lower quality products and unhygienic conditions.
They thrive by serving the poor in the urban areas who visit them for their competitive prices and variety of produce available.
Changing quality and safety requirement of customers has made some of the big chain supermarket to shift to more specialization suppliers for their procurement needs and this has implications that will directly or indirectly affect final points at the farm level.
The highest consumption of processed fresh fruits and vegetables is in urban areas where incomes are higher and presence of tourists gives a drive for consumption.
Wakulima market is the main wholesale market in Nairobi serving retail markets in Nairobi like Kawangware, Gikomba, Toi, Kangemi, City Park and Korogocho.
HOW SUPERMARKETS SOURCE FOR FRESH FRUITS AND VEGETABLES
1. THROUGH IMPORTATION
The financial muscle of supermarkets enables them to import produce from South Africa and other east African countries when some fruits and vegetables are off season in Kenya.
Though some produce is imported from Uganda and Tanzania by traders in open air markets during off seasons, it does not take long before the off season sets in them.
That so as, Tanzania and Uganda lie in close proximity with Kenya; the equator passes though Uganda and Tanzania is a few degrees away from it.
Supermarkets have an edge in the business of importation as they can access distant markets and have highly trained procurement departments.
2. PROCUREMENT FROM LOCAL MARKET
Small and independent supermarkets account for 25% of the supermarket share of fresh fruits and vegetables buy from brokers who get their goods from open or wet markets or directly from rural farms.
Large supermarkets prefer suppliers who guarantee quality, traceability, a steady supply of expected volume all year and consistent delivery times.
The aforesaid needs have made Fresh And Juiciltd wholly owned by Nakumatt to supply all its branches.
Nakumatt has a centralized procurement system for its Nairobi network with one supplier for horticultural produce who sources the produce from large to medium farms near Nairobi, 10% from small holder farmers.
Uchumi has a centralized purchasing for its branches in Nairobi. After purchasing, the vegetables are distributed to the branches within Nairobi. For some of its stores, especially those in small towns they purchase directly from farmers and traders.
There are 4 large institutional suppliers and 10 small ones who have emerged due to more stringent demand on quality by supermarkets. They include Mugoya grocers, Zucchini vegetables shop and Fresh and Juici
IMPACT OF SUPERMARKETS IN FRESH PRODUCE SUPPLY CHAIN
A large percentage of the households in the Nairobi and other towns purchase fruits and vegetables from retail markets like kiosks and kibandas around their homes.
This is soon changing as more and more people are buying fresh fruits and vegetables from supermarkets.
This is so as supermarkets are quality conscious, have a variety of fruits and vegetables throughout the year and the growing middle class in the country prefers to shop in them rather can visit grimy and overcrowded markets.
Supermarkets have started laying stringent safety and quality standards for foodstuff with some of the produce being labeled with producer identification for purposes of traceability.
Supermarkets as outlets of produce are likely to causing fundamental structural changes in the produce supply chains as they taking away market share from kiosks, open air markets and kibandas.
Though Wholesale and open markets still remains the most important outlet for fruits and vegetables in Kenya, the supermarkets are becoming vicious competitors.
Supermarkets emphasize on quality, variety and reliability, traceability and consistent supply of produce.
These conditions can’t be met when purchases are made at Wholesale and open markets.
There is real fear that direct supplies from small holder farmers may dwindle due to these stringent demands and also spatial scattered nature of these producers that raise transactions costs especially transport and time.
A farmer invests time, money and labor in his farm with the aim of making profit and personal satisfaction.
His assumption is, if the weather is conducive and pests don’t destroy his crops or diseases kill his animals he will recover his input and make profit.
He has a basket of options to choose from— crops or animals that he will plant or keep so as to minimize his risk and maximize his profit.
He must undertake a detailed examination of the profitability of individual enterprises and of the farm system as a whole in the evaluation process.
‘There are no quick fixes available to improved farm profitability every item must be carefully considered if it’s worth keeping’
This process of evaluation involves the under mentioned process
1. BENCHMARKING
It is not easy to assess the efficiency and profitability of an enterprise without comparing it to available standards.
Since extension services unavailable in Kenya, the only starting point for comparison of is the best practice norms or benchmarks.
As you compare your farms enterprises with those from other farms you will know whether you are utilizing the full potential of your farm or not.
For example, if you own dairy cattle, you may compare their productivity those from a research center.
2. OPPORTUNITY COST OR PRODUCTION COST?
The prices of farm produce are unpredictable resulting to uncertainty about the correct price to use for most produce.
During accounting, items are valued at production cost. A milk producer will therefore record the price of fuel, fertilizer and seed as being a maize production cost in his accounting system.
If he wants to determine the profitability of his dairy enterprise he will use the price he can get for the maize less marketing cost.
In other words, the maize enterprise sells maize to the dairy enterprise at market related price.
This principle widely used where related companies sell services to each other at market related values.
3. LOOKING AT THE BOTTOM LINE
A good financial record keeping system is a pre-requisite for profitability.
A profitable farm system should be evaluated by looking at the bottom line or net disposable income which is the amount of money a farmer can put in his pocket.
To increase the net disposable income, first step is to increase the gross margin, that achieved by looking at all the enterprises to save on variable expenses.
Variable expenses are those that vary with the quantity produced such as seed and fertilizer, however, reducing them normally results in lower production and earnings.
Secondly, a farmer should increase his technical efficiency. His decisions will be important in the efficient and correct use of variable inputs to result in the maximum gross margin.
Finally, prices vary between suppliers so, efficient purchasing management is necessary.
4. LOWERING OVERHEAD COSTS
Re-evaluate all overhead costs and get new quotations for services.
Labor should therefore be managed efficiently as possible. It is possible to save by negotiating interest rates with credit suppliers.
Careful management of creditor accounts can also save interest and ensure you use the full interest free period provided by suppliers.
The purchase of capital equipment should be limit to what you can afford.
5. NONFARM INCOME AND TAXES
Nonfarm income plays an important role in balancing the books. During good years, invest money off the farm and build a sizable investment portfolio that will provide necessary income especially during bad farming.
Always keep household expenses under control. Improved fiscal performance is the result of detailed analysis of farm business both on the level of a single enterprise and the farms overall performance.
There are many investment opportunities in the agricultural industry; among them is green maize farming.
This type of farming is different, as the farmer sells the maize while it is at the mature green stage.
Green maize is popular in Kenya; it’s cooked with beans to produce a popular meal known as githeri or it’s eaten roasted.
It has been estimated that an acre of maize costs a farmer 20,000-20,000 to produce. Once the maize is at the mature green stage, brokers/middlemen buy the crop at a cost 35,000-40,000 shillings per acre.
This means that a farmer will make a profit of 15,000-20,000 per acre. The broker takes care of all costs of harvesting, packing and transporting the maize.
When the maize is left to dry so that it is sold for flour production, one acre can produce 20 to 30 ninety kilogram bags.
A bag of dry maize is priced at 2,500-2,800 shillings. This means that a farmer is likely to earn between 50,000 to 84,000 shillings.
He will however incur the costs of harvesting, shelling, drying the maize, storage and treating the maize to guard against weevils.
All the aforementioned costs will eat into his profit and it is likely that the profit he will make will be lower than if he sold his maize at the green stage.
Dilemma facing potential investors
Growing green maize in Kitale seems like a worthy investment as the environment favors maize production, the soils are fertile, and the price of green maize is high at 3000 shillings for a 115-kilogram bag.
Unfortunately, most investors are greenhorns; they are not aware of the complexities in farming, land tenure and marketing green maize.
Here is what you require as an investor:
1. Land to hire or lease if you don’t own any
2. Tilling the Land, first harrow, and second harrow
3. Hire a planting machine
4. Weeding by laborers or control weeds through herbicides.
5. Spraying by tractor for pests and diseases
6. Harvesting by hand or machine
7. Transporting the maize from the farm to the market
8. Have a storage facility
A table showing the cost of some farm operations in Kitale
Activity
Cost in shillings per acre
1.
Hiring land
3,000
2.
Plowing
4,000
3.
1st Harrowing
3,500
4.
2nd Harrowing
3,500
5.
Hybrid seeds
1,500
6.
Weeding by tractor spraying (this is what you will pay the owner of the tractor)
1,000(does not include the cost of herbicides and water)
7.
Spraying pests and disease using a tractor
1,000(does not include the cost of pesticide/fungicide and water)
8.
Harvesting by hand
2,500
9.
Transporting produce to the market
(This cost varies from farmer to farmer depending on his target market)
10
Total cost of input per acre
25,000 (approximate cost)
ACREAGE REQUIRED TO BREAK-EVEN
The ideal acreage if you intend to go commercial is 30 plus acres. To break even, you must have a minimum of 20 acres.
Commercial maize farming gets juicier as the cost of inputs comes down considerably with increased acreage.
If you are planting 100 acres and over, the best option is to buy a second hand tractor valued at 800,000-1,000,000 shillings.
To illustrate this point, the inputs required for one acre is estimated at 15,000 shillings thus 100 acres will cost 1.5 million shillings.
40% this costs of goes to the owner of the tractor; if you own the tractor, your costs will be reduced by a huge margin.
Furthermore, you will earn more when the tractor works for other small-scale farmers.
WHAT TO CONSIDER WHEN LEASING LAND
Lease the land for a reasonable period for example 3-4 years. This will allow you to recoup your investments when the crop fails or the weather is not acting as expected.
You need to lease land in a secure area without many environmental challenges and communication that may pose high management and labor costs.
Avoid leasing land near wildlife sanctuaries, game parks and transit corridors as most of your production will be lost to them.
Securing one parcel of land that is over 30 acres is difficult and you are prone to fraudsters.
You need to conduct due diligence to and it’s important that you consult a lawyer to advice you on the terms of the lease.
SUPERVISION OF FARM OPERATIONS
You need to employ a trustworthy person to supervise the farm operations if you are operating from far.
The employee should be one who understands when and how to plough, harrow, and conduct any other essential operations, without these, you are liable to huge losses.
STRATEGIES OF REDUCING LOSS
A farmer engaging in this type of farming can get losses in the following manner;
When the maize of the entire farm matures at the same time, say 100 acres- this will lead to surplus production. This affects supply and demand leading to low prices being offered for the produce.
This can be solved by planting different portions of the farm with early maturing, middle maturing and late maturing varieties.
Another reason that may lead to losses is when the crop in a single field does not have uniform growth or maturity. The solution for this is to buy certified seed from a credible dealer.
Hand held motorized tractors have been touted as a solution for plowing small farms in Africa.
The low cost of these machines seems attractive to small scale farmers.
This is good news, as farmers in Africa and other developing nations have been using hoes or ox-driven plows for centuries.
The purpose of this article is to discuss the perceptions on the performance, practicability and cost of this machine.
RATIONALE FOR USING VARIOUS MACHINES TO PLOW
When farmer tills his land using a hoe, the maximum area he can plow in a day is an eighth of an acre when he is working alone and the soils are friable.
Where the soils are hard and clayey in nature, the area that a single farmer can plow using a hoe is less than an eighth an acre.
On the other hand, when an ox-driven plow is used, he can plow at-least half an acre per day, similarly when a tractor used, more than 6 acres can be plowed depending on the power of the tractor.
In an effort to address some of the challenges facing small farmers, engineers developed small hand held tractors commonly known as walking tractors.
This innovation has elicited great interest in the farming community and traders who want to promote their use as the equipment seem affordable, practicable, reliable and cost effective.
RESERVATIONS OF FARMERS INTERESTED IN HAND HELD TRACTORS
Farmers are interested in the experiences of those who are currently using the machines so that they can make an informed choice.
These experiences are on; the cost, performance, lifespan, maintenance cost, consumption of fuel per acre, and on the availability of spare parts of walking tractors.
However this information is not available as very few farmers are using the machine and they rarely share their experiences.
POPULARITY OF HAND HELD MOTORIZED TRACTORS
These machines are popular in countries like India, China, Korea and Turkey where they are used in plowing paddy fields.
Information does not exist indicating the first country to use this type of tractor, but their use is widespread in China, South Korea and Turkey.
However this technology is new to Africa, few farmers own them and have reported mixed experiences as they use them.
THE COST OF WALKING TRACTORS
There are a number of shops at river-road Street and industrial area in Nairobi that sell these machines. The prices range from 180,000-200,000 shillings.
The reason for the variance is the origin of the engine, its horsepower and the profit margin a particular vendor is targeting.
The models available in Kenya are imported from china and India with very few coming from turkey there are some that are assembled locally by Jomo Kenyatta University of agriculture and technology.
THE PERFORMANCE OF WALKING TRACTORS
No studies have been conducted in Kenya on the performance of various models under different soil conditions.
The available information is from the personal experiences of people who are using or have used such tractors.
It is therefore difficult to draw credible conclusions on the performance of the machines. For instance, it has been claimed that, it’s possible to plow 2 acres in a day using these tractors.
My personal experience is contrary to this claim, doing even ¼ of an acre is difficult and unhealthy.
Most of the models turned either left or right using levers during plowing. Turning the tractor either left or right is an energy sucking job that makings it impossible for one, two or three person to plow 2 acres in a day!
Secondly, the design of the tractor is such exhaust pipe of the engine is at top of the tractor. This means that if there some wind dangerous diesel fumes will be blown to your face which may cause health problems with extended use of the machine.
“I worked with a 35 HP walking tractor, handling the tractor was so difficult, the vibrations from the engine were powerful, I could feel the vibrations all the way to my spine” “I had to stop using for the sake of my health,” quips Eliud, a farmer in Busia County!
Farmers experience challenges when storing their potatoes after harvests because of their perishable nature.
Secondly,they are sensitive to sunlight; they turn green when exposed to it, thus become unsuitable for planting or consumption.
The exposure leads to the production of toxins known as solanin.
For the farmer to avoid loses when the potatoes turn green, or when they rot, he should take extra care.
A step by step process of avoiding such losses has been discussed here.
Every potato farmer has two storage objectives.
To store part of his harvest as seed for the next season.
To store the excess harvest for the market prices to improve.
Procedure of preparing potato seed for storage
The objective of seed storage is to have optimum development of sprouts prior to planting. This can only be achieved by the appropriate pre and post harvest treatment of the seed.
The first step harden potatoes, This is achieved by cutting off the stems at the base two weeks before harvest. This treatment reduces the loss moisture from the potatoes after harvest.
After harvest sort out potatoes immediately; only egg sized potatoes are suitable for seed.
All bruised potatoes should be removed; they are easily affected by disease, rotting agents, tuber weevils and may infect the rest if stored together.
Potatoes meant for seed shouldn’t be washed as the water may be contaminated by bacteria or fungi.
After the aforesaid is done, put the potatoes in sisal bags and place them on raised platforms or on a dry floor inside a rat proofed store.
Avoid synthetic bags to store potatoes; Sisal bags are better as they allow circulation of air. Alternatively, store them in net bags that allow sunlight and ventilation.
Do not store potatoes in direct sunlight, they turn green and cannot be used as seed or even for consumption.
The store should face an East-West direction to reduce the amount of light getting into the stores.
If an ordinary store is used, the seed potatoes should be covered with grass to help them sprout and reduce the amount of light getting to potatoes.
Good seed potatoes should be well sprouted; they should have a uniform sprout in all eyes. Potato sprouts should be at least 2 cm in length before transplanting.
STORING POTATOES MEANT FOR CONSUMPTION/ware potatoes
Potatoes meant for consumption are also known as ware potatoes.
After tubers are dug out, they should be well dried [a process known as curing] while ensuring they aren’t exposed to the sun, rain or wind.
When two weeks are over, they’ll have thickened skins and any nicks will have healed.
Whether the potatoes are placed in bins, bags or boxes the main consideration is air circulation.
For this reason a slated box is the best. The atmosphere should have a high relative humidity the preferably 90%, temperatures should be between 15-20 degrees to allow slow respiration of the tubers.
Exposing tubers to light hastens sprouting and produces a green color or sunburn hence potatoes should be covered or shaded from light.
As the storage season advances, potatoes should be examined from time to time, if sprouting is observed, remove the sprout and reject the damaged and diseased tubers.
USING SAWDUST DURING STORAGE OF POTATOES
Potatoes are sorted for storage by removing those that are bruised, those with tuber moth holes and rotting ones.
Farmers then spread a thick layer of sawdust across the clean floor on the store.
They then spread the potatoes on the sawdust to cover the potatoes. This method is able to extend shelf life for up to 5 months without any sign of damage.
Using this method may benefit farmers to store their surplus potatoes until the market prices are favorable.
How many times have you chosen to buy a banana during lunch hours that costs between 5 to 10 shillings instead of buying fries?
You are not alone-workers in most cities and towns in Kenya buy bananas at lunchtime to save on cost of buying fast foods or to avoid fast food for health reasons.
This peculiar habit of Kenyans has propelled banana to be the most popular fruit in the country and opened avenues for farmers to profit big.
A research conducted in 2008 indicated that 60 percent of stalls in fresh market centers, villages and towns selling fresh produce stock bananas.
We can conclude that farmers who venture into banana farming are likely to earn more compared to other fruit farming since banana production is year round.
KENYA’S PRODUCTIVITY OF BANANAS
It is estimated that the country produces over 1 million tones of the crop valued at 7 billion shillings.
Unfortunately, over 40% of production the countries production is lost due to poor harvesting and handling techniques, inadequate market banana market and due to fungal diseases like panama and pests like banana weevil.
These diseases and pests make the harvested crop to be of poor quality thus diminishing the returns to farmers.
Because of the aforesaid reasons, we country is losing its local market to imports from Uganda, a country that produces 10 million tones valued at 1.7 billion dollars of fruit making it the second largest producer of bananas in the world after India.
The average yield per hectare of banana in Kenya has been established to be 15 tones.
AREAS IN KENYA WHERE BANANAS ARE GROWN
The Abagusii community found in Kisii County are famed producers of the crop. It’s often joked that they can eat ugali with [a meal made from maize flour] ripe bananas instead of vegetables.
Bananas are also produced in Meru, Kiambu, Kirinyaga, and Maragua, Mbooni under irrigation.
The average weight of one bunch of bananas is 15-20 kg which fetches 200-300 shillings at the farm gate.
TYPE BANANAS PREFERRED BY CUSTOMERS
There are many banana varieties, that can classified in two distinct groups according to the way they are consumed: those suitable for cooking and those suitable for ripening.
Ripened bananas are more popular of the two; a fact attributed to the hectic Kenyan life, their affordability and the fact that a ripe banana is ready to eat.
Customers look for uniformly ripened bananas that are yellow in color and do not have black patches caused by rough handling during harvesting.
In most fast food outlets the cost of one plate of chips is between 60 to 200 shillings on the other hand, a single banana will cost between 5 to 10 shillings and 3 of them are sufficient to cool hunger pangs.
Ripened bananas are preferred because they give the body immediate energy supply because they have sufficient amounts of sugar and glucose.
OTHER USES OF BANANA PLANT
Besides yielding of banana fruit, pseudo stems of the banana plant are used in the production of fiber and as a reliable source of forage feed for many livestock farmers.
Banana beer is brewed in Rwanda is called Rugwanda it is served warm and tastes as if it’s sprinkled with charcoal. Guys there actually have it for lunch.
PESTS AFFECTING BANANA PLANT
Nematodes are the most damaging pest causing over 70% loss of the crop. Control is by nematicides e.g. carbofuran but it is becoming infective at the recommended lethal doses.
Treating the soil with farmyard manure, poultry manure and extracts fromtagetes minuta have the same capabilities of controlling nematodes like carbofuran. They are thus preferred since Nematicides damage the environment
WHERE TO FIND SUITABLE DISEASE FREE SUCKERS
Tissue culture banana seedlings are available at Jomo Kenyatta University of agriculture and technology in Juja and at the National Horticulture Research Centre, Thika or the nearest Kari research centre.
WHY GROWING BANANAS IN A GREENHOUSE IS NOT PRACTICAL
The cost of constructing One hectare of greenhouse is estimated to be $100,000-$200,000 meaning only high value crops are suitable for greenhouse production.
When we consider the production and value of one hectare of bananas; one hectare yields 14-20 tones of bananas valued at $ 3,220 to $ 4600 after waiting for 2-3 years!
Secondly the surface area occupied by one stool of banana plant that consists of the mother [the crop bearing bunch] the daughter and the child is about 4M2.
This limits the number of plants that can be grown bin the greenhouse thus lowers the number of bunches that can be harvested.
This is disadvantageous for those who sell to the market in form of bunches.
Finally a banana plant can grow to a height of 8 meters. This means if several of them are grown in a greenhouse they can outgrow the greenhouse and probably destroy it.
RIPENING BANANAS
There are three ways to do so
1. Natural ripening
Unripe, green, fully mature bananas are placed together with avocadoes or ripening passion fruit in an air tight paper bag.
During ripening there is the production and accumulation of ethylene gas that hastens ripening.
2. Ethylene generators
Artificial ethylene generators produce ethylene that induces the ripening of bananas for industrial scale bananas.
Disadvantage of artificially ripened bananas is they lack the characteristic flavor and aroma of naturally ripened fruit.
3. Dipping bananas in water containing carbide
It has been said that when bananas are dipped in water containing carbide their ripening is enhanced.
However it said that industrial grade carbide may contain traces of arsenic and phosphorus hence the use of calcium carbide in most countries is illegal.
BANANA PROCESSING COMPANIES IN KENYA
Stawi foods and Fruits Company enters into contracts with organized farmer groups where they buy bananas from them. They process them into banana flour and package them ready for the market.
Processed banana is packaged as StawiNatural Banana Flour and is commonly used to make baby food pasta, food fortification and pizza base.
Banana plant can yield up to 14 tones per hectare.
NUTRITIONAL BENEFITS OF BANANAS
They contain potassium, an electrolyte that helps to maintain the body’s fluid balance, keep muscles from cramping and prevent high blood pressure.
One banana is enough to replace what is lost during one or two hours of hard exercise.
One banana contains approximately 9 grams of fiber which is a third of our daily requirement.
DEVELOPMENT OF THE INFLORESCENCE INTO A BANANA BUNCH
A banana plant takes one to two years to attain maturity.
The maturity stage is characterized by the production of an inflorescence that later develops into a banana bunch containing several fingers that grow into bananas.
The size of the inflorescence determines the final size of a banana bunch and bananas.
For banana plants to produce bigger inflorescences the soil should be supplied with sufficient manure, be well draining and
The plant should be should be free of pests like banana weevil, thrips and diseases.
For instance the above plant will produce a small banana bunch and small bananas when fully mature because the inflorescence is small that is 40 cm long.
For the plant to develop a big bunch the inflorescence should be about 60-70 cm long. Once the inflorescence is produced, bananas will be formed in 3 to 5 months.
Pruning of avocado fruit trees is one of the most undervalued farm operations among small-scale African farmers. Pruning is essential as it makes a difference in the value of the fruits produced by the farmer hence more income.
Well maintained and pruned trees produce fruits with higher amounts of avocado oil; trees are less susceptible to diseases and produce healthy fruits.
When you don't prune avocado fruit trees, they grow very tall thus ruling out spraying pesticides and fungicides on them using cheap and simple equipment for example knapsack sprayers.
During pruning, we create an excellent avocado tree architecture that enhances a proper spray distribution and penetration; the maintain the avocado tree at a maximum height of 5.5 meters.
4 Reasons Why We Prune Avocado Trees
1. To get better light penetration into the tree
Pruning of avocado trees allows us to expose a large percentage of the tree's foliage to sunlight thus making the leaves more efficient in the production of food for the development of fruits.
If branches crowd together, humidity within the canopy of the tree increases--a condition that diseases.
High humidity around the flowers provides suitable conditions for fungal spores to penetrate developing fruits; thus pruning serves to reduce the moisture while increasing light inside the tree canopy.
2. Control size and vigor
Avocado trees become tall and dangerous if structural pruning is not carried out.
Varieties such as Fuerte can reach a height of 10 meters which makes harvesting hard and hazardous. Pruning, therefore, helps to make the tree of a manageable height.
3. Maintain yield and quality
The market prefers bigger fruits, but when a tree bears an unusually high number of developing fruits, they tend to be smaller.
To discourage the production of many small avocado fruits, we remove some of the developing fruits (thinning out)--a practice will tend to produce heavier avocadoes.
4. Bring neglected Avocado trees back into condition
Pruning stimulates the growth of new shoots and rejuvenates old trees.
2. When the tree is fruiting, we carry out Renewal pruning. Its purpose is to remove weak or dead material and control or encourage vigor.
If the tree is growing too tall, the strong vertical growth is cut or headed back.
3. Thinning out is involves the removal of excess fruits when the tree has very many of them. Thining out discourages biennial bearing which is a tendency for some trees to produce bumper harvests one year and poor ones the next.
WHEN TO PRUNE AN AVOCADO TREE
1. During transplanting the first pruning takes place at this stage. We trim any broken or very long roots so that they can fit into the planting hole.
2. At the close of harvest and before flowering For mature plants, pruning is typically carried out at this stage. Excess branches are removed to open up the tree to air and light.
Grafted avocado plants sometimes produce suckers. Removing these suckers is a part of pruning. Suckers are those shoots that emerge from the rootstalk that have the potential to grow into new plants.
When suckers are left to grow, they will compete with the tree for nutrients and eventually reduce the yields of the main tree.
3. When the tree has produces very many fruits we remove some of them to encourage the remaining ones to grow bigger.
This process of removing some fruits is known as thinning out; a process that discourages biennial bearing.
A guide is correct tree height is to prune, so that canopy height becomes 70% of row width with triangular shape for the best light interception.
Precautions During Pruning of Avocado Trees
Any damaged or broken growth must be removed using a setaceous, a sharp panga or pruning saw.
To prevent the transfer of viral diseases from tree to tree, you once you finish pruning one tree, you must sterilize the pruning tools before you move to the next tree.
Sterilization of pruning tools is easy. All you have to do is It means dip the pruning-devices in a disinfectant of 20% household bleach solution between trees to prevent spreading of any sap–borne diseases such as viral infections or fungal problems like Phytophthora from an infected plant to healthy ones.
Contamination of fresh produce by Microbes can occur easily during harvesting.
Contamination is commonly caused by field workers or by the physical environment of the produce.
Environmental sources of contaminants include soil, water, air, hands, containers, etc.
Preventing contamination of produce with pathogens is critical, since their presence increases the risk of illness for consumers and lowers food safety.
Contamination of agricultural produce during harvest
Some products like grapes and strawberries; are manually harvested, never cooled nor washed at harvest and packed in the field immediately after harvest.
Packing in the field generates a condition where contamination can occur easily from soil, other solid contaminants and disease causing microbes from the hands of the packer.
Since manual harvesting (the use of hands during harvest) is involved, there is a great deal of handling and contamination of the product is likely.
Some farmers use water taken directly from rivers or holding ponds for washing produce whose safety is doubtful.
When fruits and vegetables are immersed in such water containing pathogens, they can become contaminated.
Others do not clean machines for use in harvesting and handling produce before and after use, a practice that allows residues from the previous harvest to contaminate the new harvest.
Others handle containers and packing materials carelessly, allowing them to be full of dirt and other contaminants.
How produce is contaminated during cooling
Cooling methods using water and ice as the cooling media have the greatest potential for contamination of fruits and vegetables.
It is crucial that ice used in cooling is produced from chlorinated, potable water and stored in a hygienic manner.
Water and ice used for cooling systems should be free of bacterial contamination.
Practices that minimize contamination of agricultural produce
Add an approved disinfectant to keep water free from micro-organisms.
These include disinfectants such as sodium hypochlorite, calcium hypochlorite or liquid chlorine.
Good hygienic practices should be followed in handling containers and packing materials to prevent product contamination.
It is important to place a water settling and filtration device in the cooling-water treatment system to remove organic material.
Cooling water should be replaced regularly (at least once a day, depending on the amount used and condition of the produce).
Sick people should not be allowed to work in the farm especially during harvest as some diseases like typhoid among others are spread though contact.
If you visit Wakulima, Korokocho or any other market in Kenya, you will see Lorries loaded with hundreds if not, thousands of fruits or vegetables.
If not, hardworking women-trying to eke a living will be seated in the hot sun; their produce placed on gunny-bags lined on the ground, just next to them is slurry from yesterdays’ rain.
As the fruits or vegetables are piled on each other in the Lorries cabins, they bruise each other, those at the bottom squashed.
To crown it all, two or more brokers are sitting on them as they haggle with customers.
By the end of a single day, 10% of the produce will go bad. If it takes 3 days to sell all the produce, over 30% of the produce is destroyed.
Let’s get back to the women. If some of the produce they were selling remained at the end of the day, can’t be sold the following day as the sun will have wilted it.
It has been observed; over 40% of agricultural produce is destroyed at the post harvest stage.
This loss would have led to higher incomes and changed the fortunes of farmers and those product supply chain.
At times a total loss can occur if the produce is highly perishable; for example vegetables and fruits.
We must understand that seeds, vegetable or fruits are living commodities that continue to respire long after they have been detached from the mother plant.
Seeds respire slowly therefore can handle rough treatment and still be viable years later.
This is not the case for vegetables and fruits for they respire and deteriorate very fast after suffering wounds from rough treatment.
Who is the loser at the end of the day? – The farmer. The broker would have made their cut, the city council theirs- the farmer crying all the way to his wife!
When Kenyans are selling produce to the international markets, it is well packaged, handled and inspected by our best graduates who work for KEPHIS [Kenya plant health inspectorate service]
What happens when we want to sell produce locally? Nobody cares! - The produce is loaded and ferried in a dirty pickup that probably ferried a corpse the other day.
When the produce gets to the market who handles it? Your guess is right- it is that ‘fella’ who is water phobic.
The last time he had a shower was when he was rained on as he was caring a 100 kilo sack of potatoes.
The logic behind this article is- you can earn more if you mind how you handle produce as you will reduce wastes due to rotting.
During harvest time, the temperature of harvested produce is almost the same as ambient temperature. Sometimes it can be high as 400 degrees depending on the surrounding environment. If temperatures are high, the respiration rate of the produce increases consequently increasing the evolution of ethylene, a gas responsible for ripening and senescence. The objective cooling of produce is to slow down the rate of respiration thus prolong its shelf life. PRE-COOLING Pre-cooling is the rapid lowering of the field heat from freshly harvested produce before a comprehensive cooling regime is undertaken so as to maintain its quality. Methods of pre-cooling vary from plant produce to produce. For example when cut flowers like roses are harvested, they are dipped in a bucket containing water mixed with a fungicide before being taken to a cold room. Conversely tea is kept under a shed or in a cool place after harvest as the application of water to it, will reduce its storage life and encourage rotting. Other produce like grapes should not be immersed in water as this will remove the natural wax layer on the fruit. The natural wax is important in enhancing long storage life; furthermore it is a quality requirement of the market. For most crops, storing them where cool air is circulating, under a shed, is sufficient to remove field heat. Precautions to consider during cooling agricultural produce Inappropriate cooling temperatures or methods may subject produce to abnormal ripening or chilling injury. Abnormal ripening is mostly observed in fruits. They either ripen very fast or fail to do so when exposed to room temperature. During cooling, a high relative humidity is maintained to prevent an excessive loss of water. Such loss may result to wilting, shriveling, flaccidness or loss of nutritional value of produce. Ethylene is an important gas produced naturally in fruits and vegetables as it promotes ripening. However, during storage it should be absent or present in minute amounts; ripening is desired after the produce has reached the customer. To prevent its production during storage, cooling must be done rapidly. High ethylene producing commodities like fruits should not be stored together with low ethylene producing commodities like vegetables. The produce must also be cooled at temperature which is above freezing point for temperate commodities or chilling point for tropical and subtropical commodities. Chilling or freezing of produce affects the flavor of fruits its quality in terms of or will result to chilling injuries. Unfortunately, these methods are not used by small scale farmers because they are at times at far flung areas away from power lines and the cost involved. The quicker the temperature of the produce is lowered after harvest, the longer the storage life.
My neighbor bought and installed a greenhouse about 1 year ago. He had high hopes that in a short while he would recoup his investment.
Greenhouses in Kenya have been touted as the panacea of increased farm profitability. This served to increase his resolve to own one; little did he know...
After researching, he noted, during rainy seasons there was a critical shortage of tomatoes- prices would skyrocket to over Ksh 6000/= for a 70 kilogram crate.
An ‘expert’ estimated that his greenhouse measuring 45 feet by 15 feet could yield 100 crates of tomatoes if, he planted Anna F 1 Hybrids.
He salivated at the prospect of earning a turnover of 600,000/= within 5 months after investing Ksh 180,000/= in construction of the greenhouse and about Ksh 50,000/= on labor, seeds and agrochemicals.
His experience proved contrary to his expectation, because he had a job that made him busy, he left his wife in-charge of the greenhouse.
Despite the fact that his wife was determined to succeed, unfortunately, she had zero skills in pest identification, irrigation and fertility requirements and greenhouse management.
Within 1 month of transplanting her plants were invaded by white flies and red spider mites and within weeks, everything had dried up! She planted tomatoes again and again, the same thing happened.
By the time I arrived, the greenhouse was under Sukuma wiki[kale] for family consumption.
They had lost over Ksh 80,000/= in seed, chemical and labor costs and were on the verge of selling the greenhouse.
Exaggerated information:-
Most of the information available on greenhouse production is inaccurate as it is being peddled by salesmen is whose motivation is, to make a quick sale or profit.
The yield potential of greenhouses is exaggerated to appear attractive to the naive first time grower or inexperienced farmers.
Some of these self appointed ‘experts’ do not have any hands on experience on greenhouse production!
Their job is to set up greenhouses for farmers [which they do skillfully] after that, the farmer is left on his own, either to succeed or fail.
The hard job for the farmer commences after he purchases the greenhouse. He has to; grow the correct crop, at the correct time, the correct way- to make profit.
The reality is; the yield obtained from a greenhouse is directly proportional to the technical skills and its management by the owner.
One needs to be experienced on use of irrigation, plant hormones, greenhouse grade fertilizers, pesticides, pest identification and control.
For instance, crops grown in a greenhouse are sensitive to salinity. This means, the water used in irrigation, must be free from dissolved salts especially sodium chloride, as it has a damaging effect on crops.
Secondly, most farmers do not realize incorrect usage of fertilizers in a greenhouse can render their greenhouses useless.
Fertilizers tend to increase the level of salts in the soil or growth medium. They need to use fertilizers with a low salt index or periodically drench the soil.
The other misconception is; plants grown in a greenhouse do not suffer pest attack.
The fact is, a greenhouse is an enclosed environment where high warmth levels coupled with high humidity exist making favorable for pest growth compared to the open areas.
An experienced farmer will continuously scout for pests and diseases and control them before they reach economic injury levels.
They continually struggle with greenhouse pests like red spider mites, white flies, thrips and diseases like agro-bacterium, powdery mildew among others.
To control these diseases and pests, they spend a great deal on agrochemicals. For them to make substantial profits they continuously device ways of minimizing pest problems.
In conclusion, you should not be afraid of this investment, for it richly rewards for those who are ready to learn and persevere.
It is in a greenhouse that technology can be used in previously unimaginable ways.
At a click of a button, you can irrigate crops, increase or reduce greenhouse temperature, irrigate plants and a myriad of other operations conducted.
Do not be afraid to consult experts. I believe there are those who are motivated by the success of small start-ups and are ready to offer free advice.
Farming is an enterprise where you can double or even triple your investment in 6 months to one year but it is laden with huge risks.
In my previous blog posts, I have provided technical information on different crops for those who wish to start a farming enterprise; but this one is unique, for the focus is success in agribusiness.
A farming business is the easiest business to start; all you need is a piece of land. If you don’t have any, there are people, always ready to lease their land.
Secondly; you must have the resolve to work hard, equipped with technical knowledge on the crop you wish grow and be abreast to the ever changing crop or farm operations and financial literacy skills.
Most of us assume that capital is the paramount factor in agricultural production, this is not true. In my opinion, managerial skills reign supreme- they determine success or failure.
A knowledgeable agricultural investor/farmer will view farming as a production line. The factory is the soil, where inputs are necessary in sufficient quantities for flourishing crop growth.
Most farmers do not supply the requisite inputs in the desired quantities. They either, oversupply or undersupply them; two conditions having a considerable influence on the quality of and price at which to sell the product.
Farmers all over lament that the costs of production have sky rocketed while the commodity prices have remained low; even in this condition, there are those who are smiling all the way to the bank.
For instance, during the rainy season, grass sprouts all over even on public land. Those with foresight harvest the grass aggressively; store it for the dry season or replenish their barns.
An Agro-based business thrives during seasons of biting shortage or during seasons of high demand like Easter and Christmas; successful farmers position their resources for such occasions.
All we need to succeed in any business including agriculture is the ability to forecast and lay plans that will shape the business/firm in the present term, medium term and in the future.
HOW FINANCIAL LITERACY AFFECTS AN AGRIBUSINESS
Success in business is the wish of every businessman or lady in Kenya; unfortunately only a handful makes it. A discussion on a popular web forum www.wazua.com attributed this failure to lack of financial literacy.
“The...biggest handicap to most people achieving financial freedom is the lack of financial education. We have people all over who are keen to invest and start business, but the truth of the matter is that 90% of the businesses started fail within the first 5 years of operation.”
The question is; which financial education is needed to succeed in business? Must you arm yourself with complex accounting formulas or equations to calculate profit or loss, sales projections or turnover?
We have witnessed people, who’ve had suboptimal education succeeding in business; some of whom are billionaires! This proves to succeed; only a basic education is necessary.
All we need to understand is; what is capital, what are sales, when do you make a profit or loss and how to deal with and regulate expenses, and, recognize that every decision taken, has a financial implication to the business.
Many people have bright business ideas. Once they take the bold step to implement them, they fail to differentiate capital from sales, profit from sales, and fail to monitor expenses to peril of the business.
Successful businessmen whether learned or not, have learned by experience and practice the role of capital in business, the tricks of increasing sales, the ways of increasing profits while reducing losses and the effect of ballooning expenses on a business.
Of course there are other ‘accounting calculations or concepts’ [if implemented] assist a businessman to accurately determine if his business is doing well.
I believe the most basic accounting concepts constitute the foundation of any business; other accounting formulas evolve from them.
Customarily, we are quick to leap into opportunities without seriously analyzing them. We consequently finish up missing the bigger picture.
We are rash to engage in business because of the greed of achievement. A business is like a seed; there are preparations that must be put in place before planting the seed.
You don’t expect to harvest immediately after planting, the seed must be natured; the bountifulness of the harvest is determined by how we natured the seed.
At times, regardless of the effort done, we miss a harvest because of reasons beyond us; the same applies to business.
When we critically analyze ourselves and the business, we will be able to understand our limitations and how they affect the business so that adjustments can be made.
There exists a very big gap and the same must be addressed if we want to progress as a country and get out of the shackles of poverty and of course the middle class mentality.
To establish a grape orchard, you need the right planting material. Grapes happen to be propagated vegetatively; this means, parts of the plant are cut, rooted and used to generate other plants. The most common method used in the vegetative production of grapes is stem cuttings.
If you are growing grapes for the first time you can obtain the cuttings from other grape farmers in Kenya or the Kenya Agricultural research institute (KARI). But if you already grow some grape vines in your farm in Kenya all you need to expand your farm is the vegetative propagation of the vines. Other grape vegetative propagation methods include; layering, budding, grafting and tissue culture. Layering is used in cultivars that are difficult to root while budding is used to rejuvenate old vines On the other hand, grafting is done on rootstocks resistant to the grape louse, nematodes and other soil conditions like drought and low PH. When you need clean planting materials in large quantities such that it is impossible sufficient grape stem cuttings, Tissue culture becomes handy. Grapes can also be grown from seeds; this method is mainly use by plant breeders to grow grapes with the intention of creating new varieties or improving the existing ones.
How To Obtain Suitable Grape Cuttings For Propagation.
The best time to get cuttings from grapes for propagation is when the plant is dormant. You harvest cuttings from the dormant annual fruiting vines or canes. Hardwood cuttings of 30 cm long, each with 3-4 buds are selected from the mother-plant and treated with a rooting hormone. Hormone treated cuttings are then stuck in a nursery to root and develop leaves. After rooting and leafing takes place, they are ready for transplanting to the main farm.
Planting Grapes
The Land is ploughed thoroughly and deeply to a fine tilth. Trenches measuring 30 cm deep by 20 cm wide and 1.5 M long are prepared for insertion of the cuttings. The top soil is mixed with 120 grams DSP and put back into each trench. The soil is then irrigated thoroughly and excess water is allowed to drain out before the cuttings are stuck in the trenches. Spacing of 15 cm apart should is observed the trench is filled leaving the top buds of each cutting exposed. Sprouting will occur after 4 weeks, afterwards top dress using CAN to promote vegetative growth. The cuttings should be left to grow for one year after which they will be ready for transplanting to the main field. The best time is between, August to October, so as to reduce transplanting shock. If the cuttings are directly stuck in the field, the same procedure used in the nursery should be followed, but the spacing in the field should be the recommended spacing. Holes should be at least 60 cm deep; each hole should receive 120 grams of DSP fertilizer, soil mixed with it, followed by irrigation. The whole cutting should be covered with soil; one bud should be left projecting above the soil. The soil around the cutting or transplant should be firmed and irrigated weekly. Shoots that sprout through soil are the best; those that are vigorous should be allowed to grow and trained towards a trellis.
Training And Pruning Of Grape Vines
Before grapes are planted a trellis system should be set up. The most suitable trellis is the T trellis as it is easy to construct and maintain. There are other methods of trellising; they include Veranda, Double veranda and Table trellis. Training is determined more by trellis system than by the rootstock. Spacing of vines is usually about 2 to 2.5 Meters intra row spacing and 3 Meters inter row spacing. The combination of training and pruning gives the vines the shape for bearing fruits. The shape should maximize the number of bearing canes and their exposure to the sun, as this improves the quantity and quality of grapes respectively. On the other hand, disease control is easier. One year after planting, vines, go dormant. When environmental conditions improve, the main shoot starts growing. When it reaches the top wire of the trellis it is pinched to encourage branching. New shoots emerge from the pinched point. If you are using a T-trellis select only 2 shoots. Train them to follow the wire in opposite directions. Laterals that grow from the trained shoots are allowed to hang below the wires. They should also be pinched to discontinue excessive growth once they have grown sufficiently. Pinching of grapes is important as it conserves nutrients, removes apical dominance, prevents the growth of small berries at the top of the vines and encourages good bud break and berry development.
Harvesting, Handling And After Care Of The Vines
Ripe berries are cut off from the laterals during harvesting. After harvesting, grape vines go dormant. If they don’t go dormant naturally, all leaves must be stripped of from the vine to allow them to go dormant forcefully. A Powdery mildew attack or withholding irrigation can promote defoliation.
Grapes--where do they grow them in Kenya? Most Kenyans have no idea where the grapes in their wine or juice come from? This is surprising considering that Kenya is known for its quality agricultural produce, but in of grape production, we are a far way off.
Very few Kenyans know where grapes are grown. It has been established that the plant grows well in Naivasha, Mandera, Mombasa, and Kibwezi.
Grape is not very exacting about temperature. Consequently, it can be the grown practically everywhere in the world making it the fruit with the broadest geographical distribution.
Kenya has a high potential to be a leading producer of the grapes if its cultivation is taken seriously.We can save a lot of foreign exchange as over 90% of the fruit used in wine and juice making is imported from South Africa and other countries. I am saying this because other farmers are doing it--right here in Kenya. If you don't believe me, just watch this two-minute video
The existing varieties can be classified into two distinct groups according to their functions
1. Table grapes- this group of grapes is used in making various meals for example as sweeteners in cakes.
2. Wine grapes-used specifically in the production of wine.
Grape Botany
The crop is a woody perennial vine having the ability, to live beyond 500 years.
There are some grape varieties; they include, French grapes also known as Vitis vinifera, American grapes- vitis labrusa and Mediterranean/ Muscatine grapes.
The most widespread grapes species is Vitis vinifera; a native of Europe grown on the world’s most land acreage.
Environmental conditions for grapes.
The crop prefers warm to hot temperatures; during fruiting, the weather must be sunny and dry.
Warm environmental temperatures during fruit ripening are vital in increasing the sugar content of berries while reducing their acidity.
This explains why grapes grown under irrigation in hot deserts or semi-deserts are sweeter than those from cold, humid areas.
The crop can grow in any soil, from sandy to heavy clays but the land should be deep and well drained.
Where the rainfall is scant, supplement it with irrigation of 500 mm of water during the cropping season. In Kenya, the cropping season is September to March.
Irrigation should be withheld after the long rains to force the crop to go dormant.
In August to September, fruit buds form thus it is essential to keep the plant healthy and well manured.
Suitable Grape scions for Kenya are as follows
Table grapes: Dodrilabi, Black rose, Italia, Muscat of Hamburg, Alphonse, LaSalle, Muscat of Alexandria, Perletta, Cardinal, Dalbiki.
Most grape rootstocks are adapted to many soil conditions. The selection of a suitable rootstock is based on the following criteria;
1. Resistance to Phytophthora root rot
2. Tolerance to drought and other soil conditions like low PH
3. Adaptation to soil depth and texture
4. Resistance to crown gall Agrobacterium tumefaciens. This bacterium weakens vines by encouraging the production of large amounts of cytokinins and auxins that induce excessive cell division and elongation.
5. Adaptation to different PH which affects availability or uptake of nutrients. The scion should be adapted to high PH soils to facilitate absorption of Fe2+ Mn2+, and Zn2+ should be adjusted to low PH to take in Mg2+, Ca2+, and K+
6. Phylloxera (grape louse) and nematode resistance. Nematodes are vectors of grape fanleaf virus.
7. Vigor control- in cold regions vines exhibit indeterminate growth. Such growth results in the diversion of food reserves to vegetative growth at the expense of the fruit development.
There are many investment opportunities in the agricultural industry; among them is green maize farming. 
Hand held motorized tractors have been touted as a solution for plowing small farms in Africa.
Farmers experience challenges when storing their potatoes after harvests because of their perishable nature. 
NA BUNCH
My neighbor bought and installed a greenhouse about 1 year ago. He had high hopes that in a short while he would recoup his investment. 
